Signs of a literary language and its varieties

Definition

Literary language is the highest form of language, which is opposed to vernaculars, jargon, and dialectisms. Some experts contrast it with the spoken form because they consider it a written language (for example, in the Middle Ages they only wrote in the literary language).

This form is considered a historical category because this category is formed in the process of linguistic development. A literary language is an indicator of the level of national culture, because works are created in it and cultural people communicate in it.

There are many definitions: some are constructed from a linguistic point of view, others use delimitation with the help of native speakers of the language. Each definition is correct, the main thing is that you know how to distinguish it from other categories. Below we will give the concept of features of a literary language.

What does it mean to show your tongue? Why did Einstein stick out his tongue?

People love to tease their own kind, that’s just the way they are. Neighbors willingly rejoice at the failures of their neighbors, believing for the most part that they look much smarter compared to them. And although this is unlikely, it is better not to give others grounds for malice - they will laugh. Finnish writer Marti Larni noted in one of his works that the most natural type of human laughter, among others, can be considered malicious. From childhood, children learn to express their emotions. The most common way to tease a kindergarten classmate or classmate is to simply stick out your tongue.

It's not always offensive

It is impossible to accompany this mimic sketch with a verbal text for a simple technical reason - there is nothing to say. But there is no need for this, and so, without words, everything is clear. However, this is at first glance. Representatives of other nations have a different interpretation of this grimace. She can express not only malice, but other emotions.

The people of Tibet are perhaps the only people on the planet who show respect in this way. When they meet, they joyfully stick out their tongues and smile benevolently. Perhaps for them this is a confirmation of good intentions and the correspondence of words to bright thoughts, something like the absence of a “stone in their bosom.”

The Chinese also do not attach an offensive meaning to this action; for them, showing your tongue means showing an extreme degree of surprise, amounting to fear. Not very pleasant emotions, but they cannot be classified as manifestations of aggression or hostility. “There are no words” - this is how this custom can be interpreted.

For the Polynesian of the Marquesas Islands, it is considered a quite common gesture to stick out the tongue, which means to demonstrate denial or disagreement. They express the same thing as we do when we alternately turn our heads to the right and to the left. By the way, the Bulgarians and other peoples also have differences in this regard; by nodding, they seem to say “no,” and shaking their heads from side to side means agreement. You just need to know these features so as not to be offended by either the Marquesan aborigines or the Bulgarians.

Children's habit

There is no logical explanation for why children stick out their tongues. It’s unlikely that anyone specifically teaches them this, and as they get older, they do it extremely rarely. Perhaps this is some kind of secret of all children, which they do not tell adults, but, growing up, they themselves forget. Their tongue sticking out, firstly, indicates the highest degree of diligence, the desire to do something with special care. Secondly, when doing something, children, like all other people, do not want to be disturbed. When someone tries to distract a child from an interesting activity, he risks receiving a “note of protest” in the form of a sticking out tongue: “Leave me alone!” Interestingly, this manner remains with some adults.

Don't tease Australians

Sticking your tongue out in many countries is tantamount to an intention to challenge someone to a duel, so it’s better not to do it just in case. The most acute reaction to this is shown by New Zealanders. Apparently, they perceive this gesture in such an obscene context that they don’t even want to explain the reasons. The fact remains that in this distant island country, the tongue hidden behind the teeth helps preserve them better than all the Orbits and Blend-a-Honeys.

Australians react in approximately the same way, which may be explained by their common ancestors with New Zealanders, British convicts, in whose ancient customs one should probably look for the hidden meaning of the offensive gesture.

Don't scare Indian children

Sticking your tongue out at a South American would be an extremely reckless act. The people there are hot-tempered and do not tolerate accusations of cowardice, and this is how they will understand our simple “tease.” At best, you will have to deal with the local police: explain yourself, make excuses for ignorance, which, as you know, “does not liberate...” and all that. And in the worst case, you can personally see the courage of the offended Latino and his ability to stand up for his honor.

Hindus, by sticking out their tongues, demonstrate the highest degree of anger and hostility. It is especially not recommended to scare children in this way - the reaction of parents may, according to our standards, be inadequate, and it is not customary to joke in this way there.

Harmless tease

In Europe and America, although demonstrating one’s own language is considered a sign of low culture, it does not cause very painful consequences. For some reason, only German motorists consider this gesture to be analogous to an extended middle finger (this is how Americans tease when overtaking someone on the highway). Such provocation, which threatens to increase the risk of an accident, will be expensive (the fine for it is up to three hundred euros). But almost everywhere, including here, a protruding tongue is a slightly childish symbol of ridicule with a touch of light irony.

Why did Einstein stick out his tongue?

The author of the theory of relativity was a strange man. His attitude towards life's blessings and money was disdainful, checks for astronomical sums served as bookmarks, and the great physicist preferred sweaters when it came to clothes. Albert Einstein used the services of a hairdresser only as a last resort, maintaining his reputation as an eccentric and extremely impractical slob. He was also known for being forgetful, and his absent-mindedness only emphasized the image of a genius whose thoughts are occupied with important issues and nothing more.

Among the many photographs, the most famous is the one in which Albert Einstein sticks out his tongue. It is believed that it reflects the character of the scientist, who remained a child in everything not related to theoretical physics. Arthur Sass, a renowned photographer, captured this momentous moment during the celebration of Einstein's 72nd birthday in 1951.

The apparent indifference to his own appearance, demonstrated by the brilliant theorist, does not at all indicate his indifference to his own image, replicated by the media. He liked the image, the photographer received an order for several copies of this portrait, which were later signed and given away to friends.

One of the lucky ones was Howard Smith, a journalist with whom the physicist was friends. After 58 years, the gift was sold at auction in New Hampshire (USA) for $74,000. The dedication written by Einstein addressed a humorous grimace to all humanity.

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The formation of a cultural linguistic form

The basis of the literary language is considered to be a dialect, which is dominant in the political, economic and cultural center of the state. The Moscow dialect served as the basis for the Russian language. The Church Slavonic language had a great influence on the formation of this species. The first written translations into our language were Christian books, which later affected the development of the language. For a long time, the teaching of writing took place through the church, which undoubtedly influenced the culture's written language.

But one should not combine literary and artistic language, because in the first case it is a broad concept that includes the variety with which works are written. The hallmarks of a literary language are its strict normalization and accessibility to everyone, while some authors of works of art do not have sufficient knowledge of the literary form of the language in the broad sense.

Symptoms

Pip on the tongue can occur in an acute or protracted, chronic form. The main clinical manifestations of glossitis are pain when speaking, during eating, palpation, hyperemia (overflow of blood vessels) of the tongue, the presence of erosions, ulcers on its surface, etc. Pain can occur in the area of ​​the root of the tongue, affecting the neck and chin. The diseased organ may increase or decrease in volume, change color, become covered with plaque, cause bad breath, and a sore throat.

Separately, we should highlight the migratory form of pipun - desquamative glossitis, the signs of which are bright red smooth lesions with a white border, furrows, cracks caused by epithelial detachment, red mushroom-shaped processes. Depending on the reason for the appearance of a pip on the tongue, it may have the following features:

• exposure to acid – coagulation necrosis is formed (a film tightly attached to the underlying tissues);
• exposure to alkali - the affected tissues have a gelatinous consistency;
• exposure to chemicals - dry tongue, atrophy, hypertrophy of the papillae, hyperkeratosis (excessive thickening of the epidermal layer);
• thermal burn or exposure to electric current - inflammation of the mucous membranes, blisters, erosions, ulcers;
• ionizing radiation - swelling, moderate hyperemia, redness, hyperkeratosis, erosion, cracks, ulcers, decreased or perverted taste;
• infection - hyperemia, swelling, blisters, erosions, loose or tightly attached plaque;
• gastritis with reduced secretory function - decreased volume of the tongue, pale mucous membrane with bright red stripes;
• hypovitaminosis - dry tongue, increased keratinization or thinning of the epithelium, painful, non-healing cracks, bright hyperemia.

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How to identify writers' language

The cultural form of speech does not tolerate the excessive use of slang words, bureaucracy, speech cliches, and vernacular. There are norms that help preserve the purity of the language by providing a linguistic standard. These rules can be found in grammar reference books and dictionaries.

There are main features of a literary language:

• certain rules of use (pronunciation, stress), compliance with which is mandatory, regardless of social status and profession;
• sustainability - implies the desire to preserve the cultural heritage of the country;
• processing - this point is associated with representatives of literary professions, because all words are carefully polished by masters of the pen;
• stylistic diversity;
• wide range of applications (media, education, politics, culture);
• consumption throughout the country;
• presence of writing.

  

Literary language as part of the national

Each language has its own national boundaries, thus it reflects the entire cultural heritage of its people, its history. Due to ethnic characteristics, each language is unique and original, with characteristic folk features. National and literary languages ​​are closely interconnected, which creates limitless possibilities of the language. But it is still possible to identify the characteristics of a national literary language.

The form under consideration, along with the national one, also includes the use of non-literary styles. Every nation has its own dialect. Russian is divided into Northern Russian, Central Russian and Southern Russian. But some words end up in the literary language for various reasons. They will be called dialectisms. Their use is permissible only from a stylistic point of view, that is, it is considered possible in a certain context.

One of the types of national language is jargon - these are words used by a certain group of people. Its use is also possible in literary language; jargon was especially widely used in Russian literature in post-Soviet times. Their use is strictly regulated by literary norms:

• characteristics of the hero;
• with proof of the appropriateness of use.

Dialect is another feature of the national language, which is characteristic of people living in the same territory or united along social lines. In literature, dialect words can be used in the following cases:

• reflection of a historical era;
• show affiliation with the profession.

  

Treatment

The disease is determined on the basis of clinical manifestations; to determine its cause, cytological, bacteriological, histological, bacteriological, and immunological analyzes are performed. The treatment regimen for glossitis has 2 goals: eliminating the damaging factor or provoking disease and stopping and relieving the inflammatory process.

First, a diet is prescribed that excludes foods that irritate the inflamed mucous membrane. During treatment, do not consume spicy, sour, pungent, salty, smoked, canned foods, carbonated and alcoholic drinks. Food should be consumed warm; hot and cold foods are contraindicated. An important restrictive measure for glossitis is a smoking ban.

Pit on the tongue is treated locally, with the help of rinses, baths, applications, antiseptic, anesthetic, regenerating solutions; aggressive forms of the disease are eliminated with the help of systemic drugs. In case of erosions and ulcers, the formed plaque is removed from the tongue daily with a cotton swab; in case of severe hyperkeratosis, the thickened keratinized area is removed surgically. If there is a provoking disease, it is treated in parallel, and also strengthens the immune system with vitamin and mineral complexes.

Drug therapy

To cure a tongue tingle, a course of mouth rinsing with antiseptic solutions and applications using regenerating agents are prescribed. Antibiotics and antiviral agents are not always used in the treatment of glossitis - they are necessary only in cases of deep purulent process. In case of severe pain, anesthetic solutions are used.

Antiseptics in the form of solutions for glossitis are used to rinse the mouth. Their effect lasts 4-5 hours after contact with the surface of the tongue, so rinsing is performed at least 4 times a day. The following drugs are effective in treating glossitis:

• 0.02% solution of furatsilin;
• 0.02% potassium permanganate solution;
• 0.05% chlorhexidine solution;
• 0.1% solution of miramistin;

Local therapy of infectious and inflammatory lesions of the oral mucosa, not accompanied by an increase in body temperature, can be conveniently carried out using drugs in the form of a spray. One such medicine is the inhalation drug Hexasprey. For severe signs of systemic bacterial infection, Hexasprey is used in combination with systemic antibiotics.

Local antibiotics in the form of ointments are used in the treatment of long-term non-healing ulcers and burns. For applications during the inflammatory process on the tongue, the following agents with an antimicrobial effect are used:

• Synthomycin - effective against staphylococci, streptococci, E. coli, salmonella, shigella, meningococci, gonococci, has an anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect;
• Levomekol – has an antibacterial effect against staphylococcus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, has a regenerating effect, reduces swelling and inflammation;
• Nystatin is an antifungal agent that is effective for candidal glossitis.

Anesthetics are used in the form of applications, which are several times more effective than rinsing, since they deliver the medicine directly to the affected area. When treating glossitis, the following are used for pain relief:

• 2% trimecaine solution;
• 2% pyromecaine solution;
• 10% lidocaine solution.

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When treating diseases of the mucous membranes, restorative drugs are important. Therapy for glossitis should be accompanied by immune-supporting agents:

• Retinol acetate is an analogue of natural vitamin A, which ensures the restoration of normal retinol concentrations in the body, keratinization, regeneration of mucous membranes and skin;
• echinacea tincture, ginseng tincture;
• multivitamin and mineral complexes.

Folk remedies

The use of traditional medicine will not completely eliminate the disease, but it can alleviate the condition and speed up recovery as part of a comprehensive treatment. Decoctions and infusions of medicinal herbs are used for rinsing the mouth, after which it is not recommended to eat for 30 minutes. Herbal-based mouth rinses prepared according to the following recipes are effective:

• infusion of 1 tbsp. spoons of oak bark and 1 tbsp. spoons of St. John's wort: prepare the mixture, pour 250 ml of boiling water, leave, strain;
• infusion of sage, bay leaf, chamomile, celandine: dried herbs are taken in equal quantities, pour boiling water, cover, leave for 2 hours;
• infusion of raspberry leaves, coltsfoot, mallow, sage - all components must be dried and crushed, they must be mixed, pour boiled water at the rate of 250 ml of water per 2 tsp. mixtures;
• decoction of sage, nettle, calamus root, oak bark: take the same amount of each plant, chop, mix, pour boiling water, cook for 20-30 minutes. Filter the finished broth and cool;
• calendula, eucalyptus leaf, colza herb, knotweed herb - the ingredients are poured into a pan in equal proportions, poured with boiling water, covered with a lid, infused, filtered.

At home, you can prepare effective remedies based on soda, honey, and propolis. Sodium carbonate, called baking soda, has antiseptic and antifungal effects due to its ability to disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane of microorganisms. To prepare a solution, 0.5 tsp. soda is mixed with 200 ml of warm water; the mouth should be rinsed with soda 3-4 times a day. If, during glossitis, you lubricate the cracks of the tongue with honey or keep a small piece of propolis in your mouth, you can achieve rapid healing and reduce the inflammatory process.

Signs of the modern Russian literary language

In the traditional sense, the language has been considered modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. Since one of the main features of a literary language is a norm, you should know on what norms the modern one is based:

• accent norms;
• orthoepic;
• lexical;
• phraseological;
• word formation;
• spelling;
• punctuation;
• grammatical;
• syntactic;
• stylistic.

A literary language is characterized by strict adherence to all norms in order to preserve the entire cultural heritage. But the modern literary language has problems related specifically to maintaining the purity of the language, namely the large use of depreciated vocabulary (foul language), a large number of borrowings, and the frequent use of jargon.

CONCEPT AND SIGNS OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

CONCEPT AND SIGNS OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

The most amazing and wise thing that humanity has created is language.

Literary language is the main means of communication between people of the same nationality. It is characterized by two main properties: processing and normalization.

The refinement of a literary language arises as a result of a purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language. This selection is carried out in the process of using the language, as a result of special research by philologists and public figures.

Standardization is the use of linguistic means regulated by a single universally binding norm. A norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the national language, to transmit information from one generation to another. If there were no single language norm, then changes could occur in the language in which people living in different parts of Russia would cease to understand each other.

The main requirements that a literary language must meet are its unity and general intelligibility.

The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional and is used in various spheres of human activity.

The main ones are: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, everyday communication, interethnic communication, print, radio, television.

If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargons), the literary language plays a leading role. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions. There is constant interaction between the literary language and non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly revealed in the sphere of spoken language.

In scientific linguistic literature, the main features of a literary language are identified:

1) processing;

2) sustainability;

3) mandatory (for all native speakers);

4) normalization;

5) the presence of functional styles.

The Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written. Each form of speech has its own specifics.

The Russian language in its broadest concept is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, that is, all who speak Russian as their native language. The more correct and precise the speech, the more accessible it is to understanding, the more beautiful and expressive it is, the stronger its impact on the listener or reader. To speak correctly and beautifully, you need to observe the laws of logic (consistency, evidence) and the norms of literary language, maintain the unity of style, avoid repetition, and take care of the euphony of speech.

The main features of Russian literary pronunciation were formed precisely on the basis of the phonetics of Central Russian dialects. Nowadays, dialects are being destroyed under the pressure of the literary language.

MULTIFUNCTIONALITY OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE. DIFFERENCE IN THE FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY LANGUAGE AND THE LANGUAGE OF FICTION

The basis of speech culture is the literary language. It constitutes the highest form of the national language. It is the language of culture, literature, education, and the media.

Modern Russian is multifunctional, that is, it is used in various spheres of human activity. The means of literary language (vocabulary, grammatical structures, etc.) are functionally differentiated by use in various fields of activity. The use of certain linguistic means depends on the type of communication. Literary language is divided into two functional varieties: colloquial and bookish. In accordance with this, colloquial speech and book language are distinguished.

In oral conversation, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, colloquial.

One of the most important properties of a book language is its ability to preserve text and thereby serve as a means of communication between generations. The functions of book language are numerous and become more complex with the development of society. When identifying styles of the national language, many varieties are taken into account, covering linguistic material from “high”, bookish elements to “low”, colloquial elements. What functional styles is book language divided into?

Functional style is a type of book language that is characteristic of a certain sphere of human activity and has a certain

significant originality in the use of linguistic means. There are three main styles in book language: scientific, official business, and journalistic.

Along with the listed styles, there is also the language of fiction. It is classified as the fourth functional style of book language. However, what is characteristic of artistic speech is that all linguistic means can be used here: words and expressions of the literary language, elements of vernacular, jargon, and territorial dialects. The author uses these means to express the idea of ​​the work, give it expressiveness, reflect local color, etc.

The main function of artistic speech is impact. Used exclusively in works of art. Also, such speech has an aesthetic function, as well as an evaluation and communicative function. Fiction acts as an assessment of the surrounding world and an expression of attitude towards it.

Rhyme and rhythm are the distinctive features of speech. The tasks of artistic speech are to influence the feelings and thoughts of the reader and listener, and to evoke empathy in him.

The addressee is, as a rule, any person. Conditions of communication – participants in communication are separated by time and space.

The content of artistic speech - the artist thinks in images caused by specific living conditions.

Linguistic means of artistic speech (words with a figurative meaning, emotional-figurative words, specific words (not birds, but thunder), interrogative, exclamatory, incentive sentences, with homogeneous members.

SPEECH INTERACTION

Speech is the main way to satisfy personal, and not only personal, communication needs.

Speech communication is a motivated living process of interaction, which is aimed at the implementation of a specific, vital goal, proceeds on the basis of feedback in specific types of speech activity.

The interaction of communicators is the exchange in the process of communication not only of speech statements, but also of actions and deeds. Interaction is carried out in the form of contact, conflict, partnership, cooperation, competition, etc. Speech and non-speech interaction of communication participants is distinguished.

The means of verbal communication is language, and the method is speech. The communication channels of non-verbal communication are vision, gestures, motor skills, kinesthesia (smell, touch, sensations). Speech interaction is preceded by social interaction.

Social interaction begins with the establishment of psychological contact (saw, nodded, smiled or turned away sharply). Social interaction (began to listen and understand the purpose of what the interlocutor is communicating) moves on to influence (began to look at the message through the eyes of the partner), and then to semantic contact. There are three interrelated components in the structure of interpersonal interaction:

1) behavioral component. It includes the results of activity, speech actions and non-speech actions of each of the participants in communication, as well as facial expressions, pantomime, gestures, everything that other people X can observe in their interlocutors. By observing the behavior of a person, one can interpret his personal characteristics, motives of behavior, character, and temperament. Thanks to auxiliary means of communication (gestures, facial expressions), a person more easily and quickly assimilates the information conveyed by the interlocutor;

2) effective component. Includes everything that is associated with the expression of the emotional state of a particular person, for example, satisfaction and dissatisfaction with communication;

3) information component - the interlocutor’s awareness of the goals and objectives of interaction, the communication situation as a whole.

Living and working together, people constantly communicate: exchange knowledge, thoughts, feelings, agree on joint work, and consult with each other. Thus, human interaction is a diverse manifestation of joint human activity. It is carried out in the labor process, friendly conversation, scientific debate, etc. Interaction in the labor process involves understanding production activities, developing a strategy and its improvement, change, transformation.

Interaction is a complex process between people, the purpose of which is to establish contacts in the process of joint activities. For communication to be successful, you must first of all know the language and have a good command of speech. We must always take into account for what purpose and to whom we are addressing, i.e., the characteristics of the addressee of the speech. After all, we will ask for something in different ways or convince a loved one or a stranger, an adult or a child, of something, which means we must be familiar with the elements of speech etiquette. According to linguistics and psychology, the main types of speech activities are listening, reading, speaking and writing.

BASIC UNITS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a complex process of interaction between people, a phenomenon that is far from unambiguous. Therefore, the characteristics of people’s behavior in the process of communication, the use of various methods and techniques, the use of speech means are largely determined by the type and method of communication that has to be dealt with in each specific case. The main components of communication:

1) a conversation will take place if at least two people participate in it (the subject and the addressee), and often there are many more participants in the conversation;

2) this is a thought, i.e. the main and current topic for conversation;

3) knowledge of the language in which they communicate. Depending on various characteristics, both everyday and business communication can be divided into the following types:

1) contact – remote;

2) direct – indirect;

3) oral – written;

4) dialogical - monological;

5) interpersonal - mass, etc. The effectiveness of communication depends on the extent to which a person involved in the process imagines the actually existing conditions of communication and adjusts his verbal communication in accordance with it. Usually a person does this intuitively, without thinking.

For communication to take place, interlocutors need a communication channel. When speaking, these are the organs of speech and hearing (auditory contact). The form and content of the letter are perceived through the visual (visual) channel. A handshake is a way of conveying a friendly greeting through the kinesico-tactile (motor-tactile) channel, i.e. the message came to us through visual contact, but not visual-verbal, since no one told us anything verbally.

The perfect means of communication is language. Thanks to language, it is possible to exchange information in different areas of life. For communication to be successful, you need to know the language and have a good command of speech. We must always take into account the purpose for which we are contacting, as well as the peculiarities of the addressee’s speech, since each person communicates differently: with a loved one - one way of communication, and with a stranger - another, with an adult - one way, with a child - another, and Accordingly, we must be familiar with the elements of speech etiquette.

The ability to communicate allowed man to achieve a high civilization, break into space, sink to the bottom of the ocean, and penetrate the bowels of the earth. Mastering the art of communication, the art of words, the culture of written and oral speech is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in. Being able to communicate is especially important for business people, entrepreneurs, managers, production organizers, and people involved in management.

Communication is carried out through speech, in the process of speech.

Speech is language in action, it is the use of language, its system for the purposes of speaking, transmitting thoughts, and communicating.

Communication is a complex process of interaction between people, a phenomenon that is far from unambiguous. Therefore, the characteristics of people’s behavior in the process of communication, the use of various methods and techniques, and the use of speech means are largely determined by the type of communication that has to be dealt with in each specific case.

SCIENTIFIC STYLE

The scientific style belongs to the number of book styles of a literary language, which are characterized by a number of common linguistic features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue character, strict selection of linguistic means, and a tendency towards standardized speech.

At first, the scientific style was close to the artistic style. The separation of styles occurred during the Alexandrian period, when scientific terminology began to be created in the Greek language.

In Russia, the scientific style began to take shape in the first decades of the 8th century.

The scientific style has a number of common features that appear regardless of the nature of the sciences and genre differences. The scientific style has varieties (substyles): popular science, business science, scientific and technical, scientific journalistic and educational scientific.

The scientific style is used in the works of scientists to express the results of research activities. The purpose of the scientific style is to communicate and explain scientific results. The form of implementation is dialogue. Typical of scientific speech are semantic precision, ugliness, hidden emotionality, objectivity of presentation, and rigor.

The scientific style uses linguistic means: terms, special words and phraseology.

Words are used in their literal meaning. It is characterized by genres: monograph, article, dissertation, report, etc. One of the features of scientific speech is the use of concepts that reflect the properties of entire groups, objects and phenomena. Each concept has its own name and term. For example: prefix

(a term that names the concept being defined) is a significant part of the word (generic concept), which is located before the root and serves to form new words (species characteristics).

The scientific style has its own phraseology, which includes compound terms (angina pectoris, solar plexus, right angle, freezing and boiling points, participle phrase

etc.).

The language of science and technology is also characterized by a number of grammatical features. In the field of morphology, this is the use of shorter variant forms, which corresponds to the principle of “saving” linguistic means (key - keys).

In scientific works, the singular form of nouns is often used to mean plural. For example: a wolf is a predatory animal of the dog family.

(a whole class of objects is named, indicating their characteristic features);
linden begins to bloom at the end of June
(the specific noun is used in the collective concept).

When constructing sentences, the author uses verbs less often and nouns more often. Adjectives are widely used in scientific works to clarify concepts by indicating their characteristics.

Among the syntactic features of the scientific style, there is a tendency towards complex constructions. For this purpose, sentences with homogeneous members and a generalizing word are used. Various types of complex sentences are common in scientific literature. They often contain subordinating conjunctions characteristic of book speech.

To combine parts of text and paragraphs, words and their combinations are used, indicating their connection with each other.

Syntactic structures in scientific prose are more complex and richer in lexical material than in fiction. Sentences in a scientific text contain one and a half times more words than sentences in a literary text.

LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF INSTRUCTIONS

An instruction is a document drawn up in an official business style. Consequently, the language of the instructions is strict and specific in its content. The instruction belongs to the incentive genre, so the main one in its text is the construction of the imperative mood. Typically, instructions come from higher ranks to lower ranks. It consists of points where each indicates safety rules at a given enterprise. The instructions relate to business documents, therefore the terms of this genre correspond to the style of all business documents, i.e. the language is standardized. The vocabulary in such documents is closed. And here business etiquette comes into play, influencing the entire language in an official business style. The presence of an emotional aspect in such texts is considered bad form. The instructions do not contain authorship, but they are compiled according to a certain scheme, although each enterprise has its own conditions, there are certain standards for these documents. They are all compiled according to a certain pattern, from which one should not deviate. The main difference between documents in an official business style is standardization. This concept unites all documents. In the instructions you can find constructions of the following type - Should not be used., Not recommended.,

etc.

But instructions can be not only general, but also targeted, coming, for example, from the director of an enterprise. Then, as in all legal documents, each paragraph will begin with first person singular verbs in the imperative mood. For example, I do not recommend., I do not recommend...

In recommendations, as in all business documents, abstractions and general concepts are not allowed. Also, words with multiple meanings are not used, especially if all meanings fit.

In literary texts, the imperative mood is marked by exclamatory sentences. In the instructions the situation is different. Most of them are declarative sentences, and exclamation marks are used to emphasize particularly important points. Thus, exclamatory sentences can be sentences that warn against any action or indicate a threat of danger.

Linguistic forms of official business style are also standardized and regulated. They are not diverse and are used within the framework of existing rules. The instruction, or rather its text, refers to written speech, and therefore fully possesses the properties of this genre. A prerequisite for it is the logic of presentation, clarity of formulation, and simplicity of language. Such documents usually do not contain participial and participial phrases. They can make the document difficult to understand. Epithets, adjectives and, in general, artistic stylistic devices with which people usually diversify their speech are also not used. The language of the documents is quite dry, but this is a necessary condition for their existence, since the legal side of the matter does not allow for discrepancies.

When an instruction is signed by an engineer or director, it acquires legal force. Thus, the instruction becomes an official document along with orders, instructions, and official letters.

ADVERTISING IN BUSINESS SPEECH

Advertising occupies a special place in business speech.

is a special form of creativity with its own techniques. This is part of the business style with the same laws to some extent. For example, like business style documents, advertisements should contain the essence of information about the subject. Advertising must be clear and memorable. All components of advertising work for this. And they, in turn, depend on the type of advertising, i.e. on where the advertising is located - on radio, television, in a newspaper, etc. Advertising is a purely commercial concept, and therefore the style and language of advertising depend on the price . But its main goal is efficiency. This in turn depends on the impression the advertisement makes on potential customers. And when choosing vocabulary for advertising, you don’t have to stop at strict, limited, business vocabulary. In this regard, advertising, or rather its texts, gravitate toward journalism. Namely: advertising should be an appeal. It should influence not only people’s brains, but also the subconscious and emotions. Hence the choice of linguistic means. Compilers often address the person directly, using second-person singular and plural pronouns, which is not allowed in strict business style, in which the address is to the organization rather than to the individual. In addition, adjectives, vernacular and other stylistic means are used in abundance in advertising texts to help individualize advertising and promote it on the market. Unlike the journalistic style, the author should not appear in advertising, since the very purpose of advertising implies a positive assessment of the goods or services stated in the advertisement.

Another distinctive feature of advertising is its extreme simplicity. The advertising text should not contain complex phrases or difficult to remember words. Advertising writers often use poetry techniques, rhyming short phrases that in turn are aimed at instant memorization.

Advertising also has its own etiquette. When talking about the positive qualities of one product, you cannot criticize similar products from other companies. You also cannot use identical names. This is not only a violation from an ethical point of view, but also legally punishable.

One more thing. Unlike business documents, advertising does not have legal force. It should tell you that there is this or that product, this or that service, but the information contained in the advertising text does not necessarily have to be a fact. And if the essence of the advertisement does not correspond to reality, then this is considered a commercial move rather than an offense.

Thus, advertising is difficult to attribute to any specific style. It contains both the features of an official business and journalistic style. Although, based on its purpose, advertising should be classified specifically as business speech.

A few words should also be said about advertising correspondence. A business advertising letter should be aimed at the interests and practical needs of a potential customer. His language style is freer. Although written and oral advertising are different phenomena, they are fundamentally aimed at attracting potential customers. Therefore, the language in it should be more open.

RULES FOR REGISTRATION OF DOCUMENTS

For the preparation of documents, there are certain GOST rules, if violated, the document will be considered invalid.

For example, the text is printed at certain intervals. If the document is in A5 format, you can print in single space. When publishing by typographic method, two spacing is used. The first line is printed five characters from the field boundary. Documents with a shelf life of up to three years are printed on both sides of the sheet. In documents of two or more pages, the second and subsequent pages must be numbered. The text of the organizational and administrative document is presented in the third or first person. The components of a date are listed on one line in the following sequence: day, month, year. In acts, official letters, orders, etc., you can use the verbal-numeric method of formatting dates.

In official texts there should be no discrepancies in the spelling of names, geographical names, terms, positions, etc. Modern business speech is replete with special words and various kinds of professionalism, which are often written in abbreviations. To avoid confusion, all abbreviations should be generally accepted. For example, ton - t; hectare - ha; second - s

(names of units of measurement).
Names of positions and titles (with last name): manager - head;
deputy - deputy; professor - prof. Various other designations:
city - city;
ruble - ruble; look - see; chapter - ch. Many abbreviations have been officially legalized

X names of institutions, organizations, enterprises, etc. Some of them have become independent words. Abbreviations for the names of institutions can be formed:

1) according to the first letters of the full name - Moscow State University;

2) according to the syllabic principle - the Ministry of Health;

3) mixed method - Hyprocold.

Abbreviations help you fit a lot of information into a minimum amount of text. But when making cuts, a number of conditions must be met:

1) abbreviations must be clear to the reader;

2) the abbreviation should not be in a context in which it will be understood in two ways. For example, the word “comrade” is usually written as t. in the middle of a sentence and tov. at first;

3) the editor must also take into account the fact that the saturation of the text with abbreviations “shortens” the official tone of the document. For example, abbreviations like “Min. culture” are inappropriate in a report to a mass audience;

4) the editor’s intervention is also necessary in cases where the author of an official document seeks to save time and space by abbreviating even words and phrases that are not customary to be abbreviated (for example, instead of a business trip - commands.),

or abbreviates the word so that it cannot be understood (for example,
about-about
instead of
obligation);
5) writing abbreviations should be unified. r. in one text

and district;

6) you cannot abbreviate the designations of units of physical quantities, the words “billion”, “million”, even if they are without numbers and not in tables;

7) you cannot replace words with letter designations, for example V

- speed;

you need to understand that rounding numerical values ​​to the first, second, and so on decimal places must be the same;

9) it is unacceptable to use the minus sign in the text, only the word. You cannot use number and percent signs without numbers.

SPEECH ETIQUETTE IN A DOCUMENT

Official business style is part of the normative Russian language. It has its own rules for the use of words and speech ethics.

A document is not just text, it has legal force, so a neutral tone of presentation is the norm of business etiquette. The subjective moment, personal qualities should be kept to a minimum. Consequently, words with emotional connotations are not used in business speech. The use of colloquial, colloquial, dialect words and phraseological units in business speech is unacceptable. But sometimes, depending on the purpose, a document, to one degree or another, still acquires an emotional overtones. For example, a document may express a request, gratitude and demand, sometimes in a categorical form. However, first of all, means of logical rather than emotional and expressive assessment of the situation and facts should be used.

As for people working in the system, the degree of knowledge of business etiquette determines the degree of professional suitability of a person. This primarily applies to civil servants, politicians, and so on, i.e. to those who, by the nature of their activities, must be fluent in the official business style. Knowing the rules of speech etiquette and observing them allows a person to feel confident.

Speech etiquette is, first of all, a system of stable communication formulas. To this we can add that speech etiquette is also the ability to correctly and competently draw up documents - from simple certificates to business letters and documents.

When drawing up business papers and documents, you need to follow certain conditions. Concepts and terms must be unambiguous, devoid of any layers and synonymous connections. Hence the need for a business person to have a good knowledge of the language. Despite the rigor of business speech, the language must be varied and clear enough to express the full meaning of the document. The vocabulary of the request should be different from the vocabulary of the demand. When composing a document, you should be aware that this is an official document, and phrases expressing a personal attitude are inappropriate here. Of course, knowledge of grammatical rules and syntax remains important. The rigor of style does not exempt the writer from observing the rules of penmanship. Any statement must be based on consistent and evidence-based thinking. As mentioned above, logic is the basis of writing any official document. The text should contain only facts. The speech etiquette of a document in an official business style does not allow discussions on the topic of this paper (statements, protocols, etc.).

In addition, speech etiquette has national specifics. Each nation has created its own system of rules of speech behavior. For example, you should not use personal pronouns in business papers, documents, letters, since when composing them, you are addressing primarily the organization. If the specifics of the document are such that the address refers to a specific person (director, head of the enterprise), then you should address it as “You”, i.e. use the 2nd person plural pronoun. Strictly following these rules of speech etiquette means showing yourself to be competent and highly professional.

THE SPEAKER AND HIS AUDIENCE

The word “orator” (from the Latin orare – “to speak”) is used in two meanings:

1) a person making a speech, speaking in public;

2) a person who knows how to speak well in public, has the gift of eloquence, and has mastery of words.

According to A.F. Merzlyakov, “Orator. tries not only to convince with reason, but especially wants to act on the will. The conviction of reason serves as a means to achieve the goal - the strongest ignition of passions."

Oratory is the art of constructing and delivering a speech in public with the goal of producing a desired impact on an audience. This art refers to skillful use of words, a high degree of mastery of the speaker. Being in the center of attention of the audience itself, the speaker is subject to comprehensive evaluation, ranging from appearance, demeanor and ending with personal charm, i.e., in order to count on the attention and respect of this audience, the speaker must have a certain set of skills and abilities. This must be a highly intelligent, erudite and visually attractive person. He must be free to navigate both in the field of literature and art, and in the field of science and technology.

A special moment in oratory is the audience. The person who is speaking must take into account that at the beginning of a lecture or meeting, the people sitting in front of him are not yet the audience. The speaker must attract the attention of more than a dozen people, so that from individual listeners they form into a socio-psychological community of people with special collective experiences.

The already established audience has some characteristics. For example, one of these signs is the homogeneity (heterogeneity) of the audience, i.e. gender, age, level of education and professional interests of the listeners. The quantitative composition of those present is also important. You should not organize a discussion in a large audience, where it is difficult to use arguments that everyone understands. But a small audience is characterized by a lack of integrity. But it is easier to manage a small audience and discuss controversial issues with it; you can focus on the discursive nature of communication. In this case, the speaker must know the subject and objectives of his speech very well. But reading from pre-prepared notes in this situation is unlikely to work.

A sense of community is another hallmark that differentiates an audience. It manifests itself when the listeners are in a certain emotional mood, when the entire audience in one emotional outburst applauds the speaker or shakes their head disapprovingly. In such an audience, each person lacks a personal “I”; everyone submits to the general and unconscious “we”.

Another motive is the motive for the action of listeners. When attending a lecture, people are guided by certain considerations. Psychologists distinguish three groups of points:

1) intellectual and cognitive (they come because the topic is interesting);

2) moral plan (obliged to be present);

3) emotional-aesthetic (I like the speaker, it’s nice to listen to him). Hence the different mood of listeners when perceiving the performance. The speaker must immediately understand and take into account all of the listed signs. A good speaker is distinguished by the ability to align his goals with the level of preparation of the audience.

BASIC TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

In any dispute, the main thing is to correctly and logically prove your point of view. To prove means to establish the truth of something. There is a distinction between direct and indirect evidence. With direct proof, the thesis is substantiated by arguments without the help of additional constructions. When constructing a logical proof, the speaker needs to know and follow the rules for putting forward a thesis and arguments. For example, true provisions and real facts should be used as arguments, where phenomena such as approximation and inaccuracy are not acceptable. The truth of the arguments must be proven regardless of the thesis. The arguments must be sufficient and weighty for this thesis. When these rules are violated, logical errors occur. There are many classifications of arguments. Since ancient times, it has been customary to divide arguments into logical, addressed to the mind of the listener, and psychological, affecting the feelings.

Logical arguments include the following judgments: theoretical or empirical generalizations and conclusions; previously proven laws of science; axioms and postulates; defining the basic concepts of a specific field of knowledge; statements of fact.

In the process of argumentation, it is necessary to separate the concepts of “fact” and “opinion”.

A fact is an undoubted, real phenomenon, something that actually happened.

Opinion expresses an assessment, one’s own or someone else’s view of some event or phenomenon. Facts exist on their own, regardless of our desire, of how we use them and relate to them. Opinions are influenced by various subjective factors and may be biased and erroneous. And that is why facts are more reliable arguments that should be trusted and believed. One of the most serious arguments is statistical data. It’s hard to argue with numbers, but you can’t abuse them, as you can lose the audience’s attention. But the main thing is that these data reflect the real state of affairs.

In a dispute between the speaker and the audience itself, psychological arguments also play an important role . If a speaker skillfully influences the feelings of listeners during a speech, then his speech becomes more colorful and better remembered. With the help of psychological arguments, you can touch any feelings, which helps to achieve the desired result. This type of argument can be divided into the following subtypes: to self-esteem; from sympathy; argument from promise; from condemnation; from distrust; from doubt.

When using psychological arguments, we must not forget that rhetorical ethics prohibits the speaker from appealing to the baser feelings of people and evoking emotions that give rise to conflict between those discussing.

It should be remembered that psychological arguments can be used as tricks and speculative devices.

Arguing is an art. An experienced speaker does not rush forward; he studies the opponent’s mistakes, but is in no hurry to take advantage of them. He tries to win over the audience with good and correct remarks, saving the main thing for the decisive part of the discussion. In a dispute, you should always have a clear idea of ​​the subject of the dispute and leave the strongest arguments in reserve.

PREPARING A SPEECH: SELECTING A TOPIC, PURPOSE OF SPEECH, SEARCHING FOR MATERIAL, STARTING, DEVELOPING AND COMPLETING SPEECH

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Functional-style types

As was written above, the characteristics of a literary language include its stylistic diversity.

1. Written and book speech, which is divided into official business, journalistic and scientific.
2. Artistic speech.

The colloquial form of speech is not included here, because it does not have strict regulation, that is, one of the main features of a literary language.

Russian literary language at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries.

The processes occurring in language are a natural phenomenon, because it is not a static unit. It also changes and develops with society. In the same way, in our time, new signs of a literary language have appeared. Now the media is becoming an influential sphere, which is forming new functional linguistic features. With the development of the Internet, a mixed written and spoken form of speech begins to develop.

Literary language performs a very complex and important task: to preserve accumulated knowledge, unite all cultural and national heritage and pass everything on to new generations, preserving national identity.

Why does a child stick out his tongue?

“My son started sticking out his tongue. He doesn't seem to be teasing me. He doesn’t show it behind his back, he always does it in his eyes. It worries me that he is already a big five-year-old boy, he must understand that sticking his tongue out is ugly and offensive to the one to whom he is sticking his tongue out. There seems to be an ordinary, perhaps not particularly pleasant conversation for my son: I convince him to collect the toys in the room, he first says that he doesn’t want to, then that he’s busy, he doesn’t have time, I continue to insist, at some point instead of making a remark, he sticks out his tongue. What to do and how to react? (Question to a psychologist)

The child shows his tongue. The first association that arises is that he is teasing. Then showing the tongue must meet a number of conditions and evoke certain feelings. Firstly, when a child teases, he usually not only shows his tongue, but also repeats some gesture, word, or facial reaction after his object, and the tongue acts as an amplifier of the previous action. Secondly, the teaser strives to ensure that there is a distance between him and the object, preferably increasing. Thirdly, permission to tease is given by a special emotional atmosphere. Thirdly, the one who, due to the previous point, feels invulnerable, is teased. Fourthly, permission to tease is given by a special emotional atmosphere

In the above example, the child does not imitate his mother - does not repeat her words or gestures, does not run away from her by sticking out his tongue. This action is performed during a serious unpleasant conversation, therefore there is no need to talk about a special emotional atmosphere either. Perhaps, taking these factors into account, the boy’s mother had the feeling that her son was not teasing her, but that his actions carried some other meaning.

In order to decide how to react to the child’s actions, it is important to understand what exactly he is communicating with his gesture. It is quite possible that here the protruding tongue performs the same reinforcing function as when mimicking someone. The boy is participating in a conversation that is unpleasant for him, when his arguments end, he sticks out his tongue out of hopelessness and powerlessness instead of making another remark: I have to say something in my defense, support my position, I have nothing to say, but I can make a gesture indicating, that I do not give up and continue to defend my action or inaction.

This assumption is supported by the fact that the mother does not experience strong emotions in response to her son’s actions, she does not understand the puzzling form of her son’s response, it causes bewilderment and a lack of understanding of how to react to it. This allows us to consider showing the tongue in this context as a response in a dialogue.

You can try to respond to tongue sticking out as if it were a normal line in dialogue, assuming, for example, that tongue sticking out equals a negation: “I don’t want to” or “no.” Answer it as if the child had formulated such an answer verbally.

Another response would be to stick out your tongue in response. However, it is important here that the parent’s tongue sticking out does not become a mimicry. To do this, it is better to respond to the child’s gesture with a nod or “yeah, I see.” And then stick out your tongue as your own response. For the child, such dialogue will be a break in the pattern, after which a constructive dialogue will actually be possible.

In further communication, tongue protrusion has a chance to become an element of coded language, indicating, for example, that something needs special attention or “I notice.”

To eliminate misunderstandings in this situation, an adult can speculate out loud, as if for himself, but actually for the child, on the topic of what the son does when he sticks out his tongue. This will help the child better understand his intentions and actions, and also explain the adult's response, which is thoughtful and attentive.

However, it should be emphasized that such response options are acceptable when the child’s actions are not perceived as teasing and when they cause bewilderment. If there is a feeling that the child is being teased (a feeling of anger or irritation appears), most likely, sticking out the tongue is not the only thing that confuses the child’s behavior. Therefore, it is necessary to deal with unsatisfactory forms of behavior in a comprehensive manner.

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